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An article in PhysOrg describes Captive Electrons
Posted on Tuesday, April 25, 2006 @ 22:13:00 UTC by vlad

Science techmac writes:
Physcists have dislodged electrons from a copper plate and observed them to hover above the plate. The effect was caused by the impact of a laser beam.



Captive Electrons
Left, results of measurements by the Max Planck physicists. The peaks represent the electrons’ energetic state. Right of the dashed line (with ATP - Above Threshold Photoemission), they would be expected to be freed from the metal. In this area there are signals which show that the electrons are in a state above the vacuum level. The right image depicts schematic measurement results. IP n = 1 and IP n = 2 indicate states in which the electrons are free, but still have contact to the metal. The perpendicular lines show how photons have excited an electron in an ATP state in which it has been fully separated from the metal. Image: Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics

Let’s imagine a really small country - say, Liechtenstein - won the World Cup of soccer. It would be quite a sensation. But how’s this for a sensation: what if the soccer ball, in the middle of the match, suddenly decided to hang suspended in mid-air? (Well if something that "unnatural" happened, probably people wouldn’t care that much about the outcome of the World Cup anymore.) What if the ball only started flying again after a player went up and kicked it. This all seems pretty much impossible for a soccer game, but now something similar, and very, very improbable, has happened in the world of quantum physics.


Scientists at the Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics in Halle, Germany, have "kicked" the electrons in a metal plate in a vacuum with a laser light in such a way that they populated states above the vacuum level. For some of them that means they escaped the metal’s lattice, but just sort of hung suspended over the surface of the metal - even though the scientists would have expected them to fly into the vacuum. These electrons ended up in a state that scientists have only imagined, never thought to be really possible. (Physical Review Letters, March 3, 2006)

We wouldn’t have computer chips, lasers, and neon lights, if it weren’t for research into the electronic characteristics of natural and artificial materials. Scientists try to determine where electrons are located in these substances - or, as the scientists might put it, with which energy the electrons whip around atomic nuclei - and how to give these electrons an energetic "kick". For this kind of work in solids, researchers use photoelectron spectroscopy. Their methods are based on the work on the photoelectric effect which won Albert Einstein the Nobel Prize in 1921.

There are still many secrets hidden even in well-known metals like copper, and much beyond the simple theory of photoelectric effect developed by Einstein. Francesco Bisio and Miroslav Nývlt, guest researchers at the Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics in Halle, Germany, in collaboration with Hrvoje Petek from the University of Pittsburgh, have now taken copper plates and observed electrons in states which lie above the vacuum level, which is the minimum energy that an electron needs to be freed from the metal’s lattice. The electrons do not, however, escape; rather, they stay held near the metal’s surface.

Until now these states were thought to exist only as virtual states, which means that the electrons were thought to spend no time in these states, but researchers showed this not to be their case.

Jürgen Kirschner, Director at the Max Planck Institute and head of Bisio and Nývlt’s department, says, "my two colleagues have now shown that these conditions are real, not virtual - even if they just exist for a very short time." It is thanks to a quirk in quantum theory that electrons can take on such unusual states. The probability that electrons are excited in the way Bisio and Nývlt achieved is in fact virtually nil, and depends on how many photons they shoot at the electrons - how often, that is, they get "kicked". Comparatively, it is much more likely that Liechtenstein really won the World Cup.


Bisio and Nývlt used laser light at an energy which Einstein would have said was not high enough to knock a photon out of copper. But the electrons lassoed in a number of photons at the same time, collecting together the energy necessary to escape the metal lattice. In the theory, Einstein proposed that only the colour (the energy) of the light, and not its intensity, determines whether electrons can be ejected from a metal. But Einstein never knew what a laser was. Lasers deliver light pulses so intense, that they can induce phenomena which physicists label "higher order" or "non-linear". Scientist have been using lasers in this way for some time already, but Max-Planck-Physicists, for the first time, have now carried this procedure to the fourth grade of non-linearity.

It is an extremely improbable phenomenon. Bisio and Nývlt were only able to observe it because they used very intense pulses of light. Kirschner calls it "a curious thought: non-linear quantum effects make phenomena possible which classical physics would call linear - and which we have thought, since the time of Einstein and Planck, is a physical impossibility."

Bisio and Nývlt had another trick up their sleeve, besides the high intensity light. They did not just gather all electrons emitted from the copper plate. Rather, they only collected electrons that were emitted at particular angles from the surface. In these conditions they could see electrons that were not just moving away from the metal’s surface, but mostly parallel to it. The electrons moved around quite a bit - but only on a single plane above the copper plate. It was as if a soccer player kicked a ball - and it just hovered, rather than flew out of the stadium.

Citation: Francesco Bisio, Miroslav Nývlt, Jiri Franta, Hrvoje Petek and Jürgen Kirschner, Mechanisms of High-Order Perturbative Photoemission from Cu(001), Physical Review Letters, 3 February 2006

Source: Max Planck Institute


 
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"An article in PhysOrg describes Captive Electrons" | Login/Create an Account | 3 comments | Search Discussion
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Re: An article in PhysOrg describes Captive Electrons (Score: 1)
by Steve_Miller on Wednesday, April 26, 2006 @ 09:43:52 UTC
(User Info | Send a Message) http://www.mdcc-fun.de/rhythm.university/
Wow, this would be an imagery, the hovering soccer ball. Free as in soccer.

Steve



PHYSICS NEWS UPDATE (Score: 1)
by vlad on Wednesday, April 26, 2006 @ 11:34:54 UTC
(User Info | Send a Message) http://www.zpenergy.com
PHYSICS NEWS UPDATE

The American Institute of Physics Bulletin of Physics News Number 775 April 26, 2006 by Phillip F. Schewe, Ben Stein, and Davide Castelvecchi

LOOKING FOR A CRACK IN THE UNIVERSE, in the form of very faint field pervading the Cosmos, one that exerts a force on electron spin, would be equivalent to the end of Lorentz invariance. Lorentz invariance is the proposition that says that the laws of physics are the same for an observer at rest on the Earth or one who is rotated through some angle or traveling at a constant speed relative to the observer at rest. An important ingredient in Einstein's theory of special relativity, Lorentz invariance has been borne out in numerous experiments. A new experiment conducted at the University of Washington has sought such an anomalous field and not found it even at an energy scale no larger than 10^-21 eV. This is the most stringent search yet (by a factor of 100) for Lorentz-invariance-violating effects involving electrons. The Washington work, described at this week's American Physical Society's (APS) April Meeting in Dallas by Claire Cramer, is part of an ongoing battery of tests carried out with a flexible and sophisticated torsion-balance apparatus. In this case, a pendulum is made of blocks whose magnetism arises from both the orbital motion of an electron around its nucleus and from the intrinsic spin of the electron itself. Carefully choosing and arranging the blocks, one can create an assembly that has zero magnetization and yet still have an overall nonzero electron spin. Cramer refers to this condition as a "spin dipole," analogous to the case of an electric dipole, an object with zero net charge but which, because of a displaced arrangement of positive and negative charge, possesses a net electric field. The existence of a preferred-direction, Lorentz-violating spin-related force would have shown up as a subtle mode in the rotation of the pendulum. The conclusion: any such quasi-magnetic field would have to be weaker than about a femto-gauss. At the APS meeting, Eric Adelberger, leader of the Washington group, summarized some of the other efforts underway in his lab such as the search for evidence of extra dimensions in the form of departures from Newtonian gravity (for instance, the inverse-square dependence) at a size scale of tens of microns. In fact, he said that something strange was happening at a measurement scale of about 70 microns; the most likely explanation of this, he conceded, was an experimental artifact.

QUARK-GLUON PLASMA---HAS IT BEEN OBSERVED? Barbara Jacak of SUNY Stony Brook is a member of the PHENIX team, a large detector collaboration (one of four) studying the high-energy smashup of gold nuclei at Brookhaven's Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC). Delivering a plenary talk at this week's APS meeting, Jacak argued that new experimental data provide evidence that in collisions the gold nucleus, including its complement of neutrons and protons, and all their quark constituents, are being melted into a true plasma of quarks and gluons. This plasma possesses the highest energy density of any substance made in a lab---up to 15 GeV/cubic-centimeter. At last year's APS April meeting all the RHIC teams unanimously agreed that a peculiar liquid of quarks had been created in the collisions. Peculiar and unexpected: instead of a gas of weakly interacting quarks, the collision fireball ensuing from a head-on interaction of the two nuclei resulted in a liquid of strongly-interacting quarks (http://www.aip.org/pnu/2005/split/728-1.html ). But this wasn't quite the same thing as claiming that this fluid was a true plasma.

To be a plasma, the quarks must reside outside their customary groupings of two or three; two quarks (a quark-antiquark couplet) together are called a meson while three-quark groupings are called baryons. Mesons and baryons in turn are collectively referred to as hadrons. One of the observed properties of hadrons is that they are color-neutral (just as ordinary atoms are charge neutral), "color" being the fanciful name for the strong-nuclear-force equivalent of electrical charge. For example, a proton would normally consist of a red, blue, and green quark which (in a color sense) adds up to zero. And just as an electrical plasma is one in which the particles are charged so a nuclear plasma would be one in which the particles possess color. At last year's April meeting the observation that the matter is liquid was presented. According to Jacak, further studies over the past year now provide, at least for her and a growing number of RHIC scientists, the necessary proof for a plasma state.

One notable fact supporting the plasma contention is the fact, apparent from recent data analysis, that charm-quark jets are being suppressed. In the fireball, charm quarks are being produced, albeit at much lower rates than the light quarks (up, down, strange). Because of their heft the charm quarks (or, to be precise, the jets of hadrons they engender) ought to be able to punch their way out of the plasma to be observed in outside detectors, but they're not. What seems to be happening is this: the plasma of mostly light quarks are taking up or engulfing the heavy quarks through frequent and intense interactions. As Jacak says, it's as if a strongly rushing river were picking up stones off the riverbed and pulling them along with the stream. A river of hadrons (quarks bundled up into color-neutral clumps) wouldn't be able to do this as readily as a river of mostly unattached quarks.



Re: An article in PhysOrg describes Captive Electrons (Score: 1)
by ElectroDynaCat on Wednesday, April 26, 2006 @ 20:56:18 UTC
(User Info | Send a Message)
There could also be a frequency doubling effect that occurs in non linear materials that could explain the supposed "forbidden" emission in this experiment.



 

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